UNDERSTANDING OF CONCEPTS ON LANGUAGE

THE NATURE OF LANGUAGE – ITS DESCRIPTION DIFFERENCES AND CHARACTERISTICS:Top of Form

Language is a system of arbitrary vocal and written symbols used for human communication. Language can also be defined as a learned, shared and arbitrary system of vocal symbols through which human beings in the same speech community interact and hence communicate in terms of their common cultural experience and expectation. As one observes these definitions realizes that the definitions have five key concepts: language is a system, language is symbolic, language is arbitrary, language is learnt, and language is conventional.

Language as a system:

A system (any system) assembles together units which form a regular and connected whole. These units are finite, inter related and mutually exclusive; that is, if one unit is missing, the whole system fails to work. Therefore, language is a system because it assembles together which form a regular and connected whole. Language consists of subsystems involving speech sounds (sound system), grammar (morphology and syntax) and semantics (meaning).

Language as symbolic:

Language can be seen as being comprised of symbols. These symbols are speech sounds and the orthography. The speech sounds and the orthography are merely symbols for reality. They do not reflect a direct referent. There is no physical connection between these symbols and reality.

Language as arbitrary:

The linguistic symbols are arbitrary because each language community picks them very haphazardly (with no particular order or plan). There is no any formal or deliberate choosing of the sounds of words to be used in a language. That is why one object can be expressed in different ways in different language communities.

Language as something learnt:

Human language must be learnt. Despite the children’s unconscious acquisition of language of language, they must be taught by people around in some stages in the process of internalizing the language. Any language that is throughout acquired instinctively is not a human language. A good example of this observation is drawn from the fact that a donkey will bray, a sheep will bleat, a dog will bark, a frog will croak, a bird will chirp and a cat will miaow anywhere in the world in the same way without any formal lesson or imitations even if the animal/bird grows alone in the forest.

Language as something conventional:

Any human language must be accepted and shared by members of a speech community concerned. You cannot create language of your own and use it by yourself; be it a technical concept, slang or even an idiom. This is basically a reason why some terminologies (newly introduced) of a language die immediately because they are not accepted by the speech community concerned. For example, the Kiswahili term mlishonyuma (to mean ‘feedback’) is not in common use because its acceptability in the Swahili speaking community is dubious.

Revision Questions:

1. Discuss the complexity of English or Kiswahili language focusing on the arbitrariness of the language in relation to the nature of our language learners in Tanzania.
2. Citing concrete examples drawn from the Tanzanian linguistic situation, discuss the challenges a Tanzanian learner is likely to face when learning English/Kiswahili.
3. It is argued that language is something learnt and conventional. Declare your standpoint in the argument, supported with concrete examples.

The defining characteristics of human language:

Human language is unique in the sense that it is different from other means of communication used by non human creatures. The following are features which verify that human language is unique:

Displacement: Human language can be used to refer to events which are far removed in time and place. Human beings can talk about past events, present as well as future plans. In contrast, non human creatures cannot. For example, a cat miaows ‘nyau’ right now because it cannot communicate ‘nyau’ for next week or yesterday. Therefore, the displacement characteristic of language means that human language allows the users of the language to talk about things and events not present in the immediate environment.

Arbitrariness: Human language is arbitrary in the sense that language signals are not deliberately planned to picture the objects or situations they refer to. Therefore, there is no natural relationship between linguistic form (sound system or written symbol) and its meaning. In non human creatures; particularly animals, there is always clear connection between the message conveyed and signal produced.

Productivity: Language users manipulate their linguistic resources to produce new expressions and new sentences. Thus, there is creativity or open endedness in human language. The potential number of utterances in any human language is infinite. In contrast, non human signaling appears to have little flexibility.

Cultural transmission: Language is passed on from one generation to the next. Thus, human language is culturally inherited in the society. In animals, however, the communication signals are innate / instinct.

Discreteness:  The sounds used in language are meaningfully distinct. For example, the difference between /b/ and /p/ is not actually very great but when these sounds are part of a language like English, they are used in such a way that the occurrence of one rather than the other is meaningful. The difference in meaning of the words/beɪ/ and /peɪ/ is conveyed by the difference between /b/ and /p/ sounds. Thus, each sound in a language is treated as discrete.

Duality: Human language is organized at two levels referred to as duality or double articulation. The first level is termed as the physical level where individual sounds like/g/, /ɒ/ and /d/ are produced. The second level is termed as the meaning level where the individually produced sounds are combined to form meaning. Such combinations can form /g ɒd/, /d ɒg/ etc. Therefore, at level 1 we have distinct sounds and at level 2 we have distinct meanings. This duality of levels is one of the most economical features of human language since with a limited set of distinct sounds we are capable of producing a very large number of sound combinations (e.g words) which are distinct in meaning.

Other characteristics of human language (shared by non humans):

Vocal – Auditory channel: In human language linguistic communication is typically generated via the vocal organs and perceived via the ears. However, the linguistic communication can be transmitted without sound, via writing or via the sign language of the deaf. Many other non human species (e.g. dolphins) use the vocal-auditory channel. Thus, this characteristic is not a defining feature of human language.

Reciprocity: A speaker/sender of a linguistic signal can also be a listener/receiver and vice-versa.

Specialization: Linguistic signals normally do not serve any other purpose (breathing, feeding) but communication.

Non directionality: Linguistic signals can be picked up by anyone within the hearing distance.

Rapid fade: Linguistic signals, once produced, disappear quickly.

Revision Questions:

1. Discuss the discreteness feature of human language in relation to sociolinguistic campaigns for language freedom in pursuit for social identity.
2. Discuss the kind of evidence that support the idea that language is culturally transmitted.
3. Describe the Kiswahili/English language in terms of human language defining features.
4. Critically assess the vocal-auditory channel feature of human language.

Views and approaches to language analysis:

Language as a system has small components which work together to form meaningful expressions. We understand larger textual units by combining our understanding of smaller ones. The main aim of linguistic theory is to show how these larger units of meaning arise out of the combination of smaller ones. These are views that this can be shown by means of a grammar as language is subdivided into syntax and semantics; where syntax describes the different formal elements of a textual unit, most often the sentence, can be combined. Semantics describes how the interpretation is calculated. Linguists view it that grammar consists of words and rules that syntactically and semantically combine words and phrases into larger phrases and sentences. This analysis overview pictures the importance of grammar in language for meaningful expressions.

Ludwig Wittgeinsten’s philosophical ideas on language hold it that language can be analysed in terms of thought and reality. Thought and reality share a common structure.

According to Wittgeinstein’s view, the world consists of facts. Human beings are aware of the facts by virtue of their mental representations/thoughts which are understood as giving a picture of how things are. These thoughts correspond to reality. Then the thoughts are converted into symbols which are expressed in terms of sentences/language.

Therefore, the world is full of reality, the reality which can be expressed by sentences via mental thoughts. The implication here is that the whole world with its diverse realities can be perceived as thought and can be expressed by using language.

LANGUAGE LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT

Learning and Teaching:

Learning is defined as acquiring or getting of knowledge of a subject or skill by study, experience or instruction. However, Kimble and Garmezy’s definition is more specialized: “Learning is a relatively permanent change in a behavioural tendency and is the result of reinforced practice” (1963: 133).

Similarly, teaching is showing or helping someone to learn how to do something, giving instructions, guiding in the study of something, providing with knowledge causing to know or understand. As we break down the components of the definition of learning we can extract the following:

-          Learning is acquisition or getting

-          Learning is retention of information/skill. Retention implies storage systems, memory, cognitive organization

-          Learning involves active, conscious focus on and acting upon events (outside or inside the organism)

-          Learning involves some form of practice, perhaps reinforced practice. In other words, learning is relatively permanent but subject to forgetting

-          Learning is a change in behaviour.

The second language learner brings all these and more other variables into practice in the learning of the language.

On the other hand, teaching is guiding and facilitating learning, enabling the learner to learn, setting the conditions for learning. As teachers, our understanding of how the learner learns will determine our philosophy of education, our teaching style, our approach, methods and classroom techniques.

FIRST AND SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING THEORIES:

First Language Acquisition:

We witness extraordinary ability of children to communicate. As small babies, children babble and coo and cry and vocally or non vocally send a number of messages and receive even more messages. As they reach the end of their first year specific attempts are made to imitate words and speech sounds heard around them, and about this time they speak their first ‘words’. At the age of 18 months these words start appearing in combination with each other to form two-word and three-word ‘sentences’. These are commonly referred to as ‘telegraphic utterances’ or ‘telegraphese’. At this stage, production of words increases.

By age of 3 years children understand a wide variety of linguistic behaviour, impressing those around them. This fluency continues into school age as children internalize increasingly complex structures, expand their vocabulary and sharpen communicative skills.

At school age, children not only learn what to say but also what not to say as they learn the social functions of their language. We can ask ourselves questions such as: How can we explain this fantastic journey from the first cry at birth to adult competence in a language? - from first word to tens of thousands, from telegraphese at 18 month to the compound complex, cognitively precise, social culturally appropriate sentences just a few years later?

It is the same questions theories of language acquisition attempt to answer:

Behaviouristic Theories:

The behaviouristic approach to language acquisition maintains that children come into the world with a tabula rasa, a clean slate bearing no preconceived notions about the world or about language. These children are then shaped by their environment, slowly conditioned through various schedules of reinforcement.

A behaviourist might consider effective language behaviour to be the production of correct responses to stimuli. If a particular response is reinforced, it then becomes habitual or conditioned. Thus, children produce linguistic responses that are reinforced. Thus, children produce linguistic responses that are reinforced. This is basically an interpretation of Skinner’s theory of verbal behaviour as an extension of his general theory of learning by ‘Operant Conditioning’. Operant conditioning refers to conditioning in which a human being gives response (or operant which can be a sentence or utterance) without necessarily observable stimuli. That operant is learned by reinforcement. Over repeated instances the operant is conditioned.

According to Skinner, verbal behaviour is controlled by its consequences. When consequences are rewarding, behaviour is maintained and is increased in strength. When consequences are punishing or when there is lack of reinforcement the behaviour is weakened and eventually extinguished.

The Nativist Theories:

These are generative theories of child language. The theories arose due to shortcomings the behaviouristic theories had. The critics of the behaviouristic theories were interested in clear explanations of the mystery of language acquisition (the explanation behaviourism does not give). Thus, they asked themselves deeper questions that were beyond scientific investigation.

 The term Nativist is derived from the fundamental assertion that language acquisition is innately determined i.e we are born with a built-in device known as Language Acquisition Device (LAD). The LAD is not literary a cluster of brain cells that could be isolated and neurologically (nerves carrying information from the brain to the body) located. It is rather an imaginary ability to language.

Thus, we can refer to LAD as the language faculty of the human brain (the mental ability a person is born with) which each new born child is endowed. However, by itself, this faculty is not enough. It entails two conditions. These conditions are exposure to language and physical capability.

Exposure to language: In the first two or three years as a child grows up requires interaction with other language users in order to bring the language faculty (LAD) into operation with a particular language. This is true as we consider the cultural transmission features of a language that the language a child learns is not genetically inherited but is acquired in a particular language-using environment.

Physical capability: A child must be physically capable of sending and receiving sound signals in a language. All infants make ‘cooing’ and ‘babbling’ noises during the first few months. It is argued that deaf infants stop after six months. Therefore, in order to speak a language, a child must be able to hear that language being used by people around him/her and respond to what he/she hears.

In normal cases, infants are helped in their language acquisition by the behaviour of the adults in the home environment. The speech is always simplified to ‘baby talk’ with a lot of repetitions of simplified sounds for objects in the child’s environment. These sounds then develop into caretaker speech (simplified speech style adopted by someone who spends a lot of time interacting with a young child). Sometimes it is referred to as motherese. Caretaker speech/motherese is characterized by simple sentence structure and a lot of repetition. Also, it changes as the child grows up and as much as the child uses a language.

Second Language (L2) Learning:

Second language is basically any language learned after the first language. In our case, the term second language refers to a language which is a mother tongue but which is used for certain specified and important communicative functions in the society. Therefore, both Kiswahili and English are second languages to most of the Tanzanians.

Acquisition and Learning Theory:

The theory observes the fact that some people acquire L2 without going to school, though this does not lead to true mastery of the language. Others go to language classes and study the language they wish to know.

Of the two situations, the former appears close to the first language/mother tongue (L1) acquisition than learning a language in classroom. This fact was advanced by Palmer (1921) who was interested in the difference between spontaneous (subconscious language acquisition) and studial (conscious language learning). Palmer suggested that spontaneous (unplanned/sudden) capabilities are for the acquisition of the spoken language whereas studial capabilities are acquired for development of literacy (ability to read and write).

Under the same concern, Stephen Krashen (the American linguist) put forward the Input Hypothesis in 1980’s. He argued that the language will be acquired subconsciously when it is anxiety free. On the other hand, language which is learnt/ studied (grammar and vocabulary) is not available for spontaneous use. He claims further that the only use for learnt language is to help monitoring (checking out) spontaneous communication. However, according to him, the more we monitor what we are saying the less spontaneous we become. Thus, as a learner acquires language subconsciously he/she develops spontaneous speech production. Therefore, in Krashen’s view, acquired language and learned language are different both in character (features) and effect (outcome)

Krashen observes that the successful acquisition by L2 learners is bound up with the nature of the language input they receive. The input has to be comprehensible even if it is slightly above their production level. He terms this observation as Comprehensible Input i +1 which means that the information the learner already has plus the next level up.

Language learners have to be exposed to the target language in a relaxed setting. According to Krashen this input is a roughly – tuned input (as parent – child language is subconsciously moderated). This is in contrast with the finely – tuned input (specifically graded/programmed language for conscious learning). Krashen’s implication here is that the most beneficial/useful thing we can do with language learners is to expose them to large amount of comprehensible input in relaxed setting. We might make students learn language consciously at some later stage for the sake of their writing and reading.

Features which Characterize L2 Learning:

Language interference: Language interference arises due to the difference between L1 and L2. The Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) maintains that the principal barrier to L2 acquisition is the interference of the L1 system which the L2 system and that the analysis of the two languages in question would produce linguistic contrasts/differences between them; which in turn would enable the linguist to predict the difficulties a learner would encounter.

Moreover, human language learning theories highlight interference elements of learning, concluding that where no interference could be predicted, no difficulty would be experienced since one would transfer positively all other items in a language.

The logical conclusion from these various psychological and linguistic assumptions is that L2 learning basically involves the overcoming of the differences between the two linguistic systems – the native language and the target language.

Lado (1957) who propounded the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) assumes that errors made in learning L2 could be attributed (caused by) to interference by L1. As L2 learning difficulties can be predicted, language courses and lessons can be designed well, appropriately and effectively.

The CAH has been criticized. Critics of the hypothesis argue that:

-          Many errors predicted by the hypothesis are not observed in the learner’s L1. Therefore, sometimes, errors made by learners are not related to their L1.

-          The hypothesis deals effectively with the learner’s production (speaking and writing) only and not with learner’s reception (listening and reading).

-          The hypothesis cannot account for the learner’s communicative strategies such as avoidance in which learners tend to avoid forms of language they are not comfortable with.

-          Contrastive analysts are focused on learners’ errors as if learners are imperfect.

Interlanguage: Interlanguage was propounded by Selinker in1972. It refers to the language learners’ knowledge of L2 which is independent of both L1 and L2. Interlanguage scholarship views language learning as natural and systematic. Thus, Interlanguage is a stage of development toward a target language. According to this assumption the learner’s L1 is very important as a starting point.

The Interlanguage stage involves Interlanguage phonology (the sound system), Interlanguage grammar (morphology and syntax), Interlanguage vocabulary (lexicon) and Interlanguage pragmatics (language use, norms found among learners). Interlanguage is believed to be the basis of all L2 productions. For that case, errors made in Interlanguage are considered as developmental errors (errors which are expected to improve).

Caution: Carefulness must be observed in interlanguage lest the errors persist to be permanent. The persistence of errors is referred to as fossilization. Fossilization is the permanent incorrect linguistic forms in a person’s L2.

Revision question: Compare and contrast the two views; contrastive analysis and interlanguage.

Hints: - Both are features of L2 learning. As it views the L1 positively, interlanguage scholarship rejects the view that a language learner is imperfect. However, contrastive analysis holds a learner as imperfect.

Learners’ Factors (External and Internal):

External factors: They refer to how learners get information/knowledge about the target focusing on the effects of different kinds of input and the effects of the social contexts:

i)                    Social effects: Social effects involve the impact (positive and negative) of the surrounding society on the language learning process. This involves the attitude of the community around toward the target language. The community’s positive or negative attitude toward the target language can affect L2 learning. So does the attitude of parents. It is clear that positive attitude toward the language strengthens the motivation to learn and facilitate language learning in general.

ii)                  Input and Intake: The target language itself is the most direct source of information about the target language. When learners come into direct contact with the target language, this is referred to as input. When learners process that language in a way that can contribute to learning, this is referred to as intake. The amount of input learners take in (intake) is one of the most important factors affecting their learning. However, it must be at a level which is comprehensible to learners.

iii)                Learning environment: A learner can be exposed to the environment which does not support effective learning. This factor brings us to the concept of Affective Filter. Affective filter is a term used to describe a kind of barrier to learning that results from negative feelings/experiences that a learner faces. Factors which contribute to this emotional reaction include dull textbooks, unpleasant classroom surroundings and exhausting schedule. Basically, if you are stressed, uncomfortable or unmotivated you are unlikely to learn effectively.

iv)                Interaction: Interaction refers to the use of target language in context (while working, playing, sharing ideas and experience etc). L2 learners have to interact using the target language. It is observed that through interaction L2 learners enhance much intake and adequate output. Long’s Interaction Hypothesis maintains that language acquisition is strongly facilitated by the use of the target language in interaction. Long observes that negotiation of meaning contributes greatly to the acquisition of vocabulary. Therefore, language learners have to use the language in context for adequate output.

In the same line of argument, Merrill Swain advanced the Output Hypothesis (Merrill Swain Output Hypothesis). According to her, meaningful output is as necessary to language learning as meaningful input; i. e.  What learners produce reflects what they were exposed to.

v)                  Pedagogical effects: Effective language teaching practices are extremely in promoting L2 acquisition. There are research backed arguments that many traditional language teaching methods (teaching methods based on form of language rather than the communicative aspect) are ineffective/insufficient.

Generally, it has been found that pedagogy (process of teaching) restricted to teaching grammar rules and vocabulary lists does not give learners the ability to use the L2 with accuracy and fluency. Rather, to become proficient in the L2 the learner must be given opportunities to use the L2 for communicative purposes.

Internal factors: The learner’s internal factors refer to how learners gain competence in a target language, given much input and effective instruction. Under this condition a learner can be able to process successfully the received input to produce a rule governed interlanguage toward the target language itself. This assertion leads us to the concept of competence, performance and discourse analysis.

Competence and Performance:

Competence and performance refers to the knowledge of language and ability to use it correctly in appropriate context. Chomsky in his “Aspects of the Theory of Syntax” (1965) points out that competence is the perfect knowledge of ideal speaker – listener of a language in a homogeneous speech community. He argues further that linguistic theory is confined primarily with an ideal speaker –listener in a speech community knows its language perfectly and is unaffected by grammatical conditions.

The concept of performance is well addressed by Widdowson through his idea of ‘effectiveness for communication’. He argues that an utterance with a well formed grammatical structure may not have a sufficient value for communication in a given context. Therefore, a language user has to primarily have a good knowledge of the form of the language (competence) and use it appropriately in relation to context in which it used and evaluated (performance).

Whether an utterance has a sufficient communicative value or not is determined in discourse (situation where language is used). That is why Widdowson’s approach is considered as ‘discourse based’.

Moreover, Canale and Swain (1980) and Canale (1983) merge it all as ‘Communicative Competence’ to talk about competence and performance, all together. They advance four components of the communicative competence:

i)                    Grammatical competence – this refers to the mastery of language form.

ii)                  Discourse competence – this refers to the mastery of how to combine grammatical forms and meaning so as to achieve a unified spoken/written text in different genres.

iii)                Sociolinguistic competence – this addresses the extent to which utterances are produced and understood appropriately in different sociolinguistic situations.

iv)                Strategic competence – this refers to the mastery of vernal and non verbal communication strategies that may be called into action for two main reasons:

-          To compensate in breakdown communication

-          To enhance the effectiveness of communication.